( 1 The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat )
for Unit 1 Exam
How to study for the exam:
• USE THIS REVIEW AS YOUR GUIDE
• Know the information from the power point slides
• Know the corresponding information from the book matching each slide
• Review all handouts
• Create an example for each concept so you are able to understand the material better.
• Review the Learning Outcomes at the end of each module that corresponds to the material from the slides
• IF IT IS NOT ON THE STUDY GUIDE, IT IS NOT ON THE EXAM!!
Terms/Concepts/People to pay attention to:
Introduction: Module 1 & Appendix A
• Definition of psychology
• Structuralism/introspection
• Functionalism/W. James/ M. Calkins
• Nature vs. nurture
• Psychodynamic Theory….know people associated with
• Behavioral Theory….know people associated with
• Humanistic Theory….know people associated with
• 1st Psychological laboratory
• Ph.D./Psy.D.
• Requirements of doctoral degree in psychology
• What do most doctoral psych people do?
• Know the different subfields in psychology (i.e. forensic, cognitive, etc.) & what each does
• APA sets standards for clinical degree programs…if a program meets the standards then it is considered: Accredited
•
Reseach: Modules 2 & 3
• Replication (of a research study)
• Why we deceive research participants
• Hindsight bias
• Theory/hypothesis
• Case study, survey, naturalistic observation
• Correlation
• Experiment
• Operational definition
• Ethical consideration taken by researchers
• Placebo/blind & double blind
• Random sampling
• Control group/experimental group
• Independent variable/dependent variable
Consciousness: Modules 18, 19, 20
• Definition of
• Circadian rhythm
• Sleep deprivation
• REM sleep
• Sleep disorders
• Why we sleep
• Dream theories
• Hypnosis
• What does research say about hypnosis
• Social influence theory/Divided consciousness theory
• Tolerance/withdrawal/dependence/addictio
• Different groups of drugs (depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens)
• Which drugs fall in each group and the common result
•
Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts.
Activity theory An interactionist theory of aging that suggests that those elderly people who remain active and socially involved will be best-adjusted.
Adoption In a legal sense, a process that allows for the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents.
Affirmative action Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities.
Ageism Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's age.
Agrarian society The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society. Members are engaged primarily in the production of food but increase their crop yield through technological innovations such as the plow.
Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society.
Amalgamation The process through which a majority group and a minority group combine to form a new group.
Anomie theory of deviance Robert Merton's theory of deviance as an adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both.
Anomie Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective.
Anticipatory socialization Processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.
Anti-Semitism Anti-Jewish prejudice.
Apartheid A former policy of the South African government, designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites.
Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations.
Argot Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture.
Ascribed status A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics.
Assembling perspective A theory of collective behavior introduced by McPhail and Miller that seeks to examine how and why people move from different points in space to a common location.
Assimilation The process through which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture.
Authority Institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised.
Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology.
Bilateral descent A kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important.
Bilingualism The use of two or more languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate.
Birthrate The number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year. Also known as the crude birthrate.
Black power A political philosophy promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions.
Borderlands The area of common culture along the border between Mexico and the United States.
Bourgeoisie Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production.
Brain drain The immigration to the United States and other industrialized nations of skilled workers, professionals, and technicians who are desperately needed in their home countries.
Bureaucracy A component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.
Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic.
Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands, and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits.
Caste A hereditary rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile.
Causal logic The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other.
Census An enumeration, or counting, of a population.
Charismatic authority Power made legitimate by a leader's exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers.
Class consciousness In Karl Marx's view, a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and need for collective political action to bring about social change.
Class system A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility.
Class A group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income.
Classical theory An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards.
Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions.
Closed system A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual social mobility.
Coalition A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal.
Code of ethics The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession.
Cognitive theory of development Jean Piaget's theory that children's thought progresses through four stages of development.
Cohabitation The practice of living together as a male–female couple without marrying.
Collective behavior In the view of sociologist Neil Smelser, the relatively spontaneous and unstructured behavior of a group of people who are reacting to a common influence in an ambiguous situation.
Colonialism The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural dominance over a people by a foreign power for an extended period.
Communism As an ideal type, an economic system under which all property is communally owned and no social distinctions are made based on people's ability to produce.
Community A spatial or political unit of social organization that gives people a sense of belonging, based either on shared residence in a particular place or on a common identity.
Concentric-zone theory A theory of urban growth devised by Ernest Burgess that sees growth in terms of a series of rings radiating from the central business district.
Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.
Conformity Going along with one's peers—individuals of our own status who have no special right to direct our behavior.
Contact hypothesis An interactionist perspective which states that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice.
Content analysis The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale.
Control group The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher.
Control theory A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms.
Control variable A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.
Corporate welfare Tax breaks, direct payments, and grants that the government makes to corporations.
Correlation A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other.
Correspondence principle The tendency of schools to promote the values expected of individuals in each social class and to prepare students for the types of jobs typically held by members of their class.
Counterculture A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.
Craze An exciting mass involvement that lasts for a relatively long period.
Creationism A literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of humanity and the universe, used to argue that evolution should not be presented as established scientific fact.
Credentialism An increase in the lowest level of education required to enter a field.
Crime A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties.
Cross-tabulation A table that shows the relationship between two or more variables.
Crowd A temporary gathering of people in close proximity who share a common focus or interest.
Cultural relativism The viewing of people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture.
Cultural transmission A school of criminology that argues that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions.
Cultural universal A common practice or belief found in every culture.
Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions.
Culture shock The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they encounter cultural practices that are different from their own.
Culture The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.
Culture-bound syndrome A disease or illness that cannot be understood apart from its specific social context.
Curanderismo Latino folk medicine, a form of holistic health care and healing.
Death rate The number of deaths per 1,000 population in a given year. Also known as the crude death rate.
Degradation ceremony An aspect of the socialization process within total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals.
Deindustrialization The systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspects of productivity such as factories and plants.
Democracy In a literal sense, government by the people.
Demographic transition A term used to describe the change from high birthrates and death rates to low birthrates and death rates.
Demography The scientific study of population.
Denomination A large, organized religion that is not officially linked to the state or government.
Dependency theory An approach that contends that industrialized nations continue to exploit developing countries for their own gain.
Dependent variable The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable.
Deviance Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society.
Dictatorship A government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws.
Differential association A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts.
Differential justice Differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups.
Diffusion The process by which a cultural item is spread from group to group or society to society.
Disaster A sudden or disruptive event or set of events that overtaxes a community's resources so that outside aid is necessary.
Discovery The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality.
Discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons.
Disengagement theory A functionalist theory of aging that suggests that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships.
Domestic partnership Two unrelated adults who have chosen to share a mutually caring relationship, reside together, and agree to be jointly responsible for their dependents, basic living expenses, and other common necessities.
Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests.
Downsizing Reductions taken in a company's workforce as part of deindustrialization.
Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction popularized by Erving Goffman in which people are seen as theatrical performers.
Dyad A two-member group.
Dysfunction An element or a process of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability.
Ecclesia A religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion.
Economic system The social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed.
Education A formal process of learning in which some people consciously teach while others adopt the social role of learner.
Egalitarian family An authority pattern in which spouses are regarded as equals.
Elite model A view of society as ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests.
Emergent-norm perspective A theory of collective behavior proposed by Turner and Killian that holds that a collective definition of appropriate and inappropriate behavior emerges during episodes of collective behavior.
Endogamy The restriction of mate selection to people within the same group.
Environmental justice A legal strategy based on claims that racial minorities are subjected disproportionately to environmental hazards.
Equilibrium model The functionalist view that society tends toward a state of stability or balance.
Established sect A religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society.
Estate system A system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services. Also known as feudalism.
Esteem The reputation that a particular individual has earned within an occupation.
Ethnic group A group that is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.
Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others.
Ethnography The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation.
Euthanasia The act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy.
Evolutionary theory A theory of social change that holds that society is moving in a definite direction.
Exogamy The requirement that people select mates outside certain groups.
Experiment An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables.
Experimental group The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher.
Exploitation theory A Marxist theory that views racial subordination in the United States as a manifestation of the class system inherent in capitalism.
Expressiveness Concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family.
Extended family A family in which relatives—such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles—live in the same home as parents and their children.
Face-work The efforts of people to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment.
Fad A temporary pattern of behavior that involves large numbers of people and is independent of preceding trends.
False consciousness A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position.
Familism Pride in the extended family, expressed through the maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the immediate family.
Family A set of people related by blood, marriage or some other agreed-upon relationship, or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society.
Fashion A pleasurable mass involvement in some particular taste or lifestyle that has a line of historical continuity.
Feminism The belief in social, economic, and political equality for women.
Feminist view A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization.
Fertility The level of reproduction in a society.
Folkway A norm governing everyday social behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern.
Force The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one's will on others.
Formal norm A norm that has been written down and that specifies strict punishments for violators.
Formal organization A group designed for a special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency.
Formal social control Social control carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers.
Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.
Fundamentalism Rigid adherence to fundamental religious doctrines, often accompanied by a literal application of scripture or historical beliefs to today's world.
Gatekeeping The process by which a relatively small number of people in the media industry control what material eventually reaches the audience.
Gemeinschaft A close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members.
Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females.
Generalized other The attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in his or her behavior.
Genocide The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation.
Gentrification The resettlement of low-income city neighborhoods by prosperous families and business firms.
Gerontology The scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged.
Gesellschaft A community, often urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values.
Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, or ethnicity.
Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.
Goal displacement Overzealous conformity to official regulations of a bureaucracy.
Gross national product (GNP) The value of a nation's goods and services.
Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis.
Groupthink Uncritical acceptance of or conformity to the prevailing viewpoint.
Growth rate The difference between births and deaths, plus the difference between immigrants and emigrants, per 1,000 population.
Hate crime A criminal offense committed because of the offender's bias against a race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation.
Hawthorne effect The unintended influence that observers or experiments can have on their subjects.
Health As defined by the World Health Organization, a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.
Hidden curriculum Standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools.
Holistic medicine Therapies in which the health care practitioner considers the person's physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual characteristics.
Homogamy The conscious or unconscious tendency to select a mate with personal characteristics similar to one's own.
Homophobia Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality.
Horizontal mobility The movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank.
Horticultural society A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods.
Hospice care Treatment of the terminally ill in their own homes, or in special hospital units or other facilities, with the goal of helping them to die easily, without pain.
Human ecology An area of study that is concerned with the interrelationships between people and their environment.
Human relations approach An approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization.
Human rights Universal moral rights possessed by all people because they are human.
Hunting-and-gathering society A preindustrial society in which people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive.
Hypothesis A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases.
Impression management The altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences.
Incest taboo The prohibition of sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives.
Incidence The number of new cases of a specific disorder that occurs within a given population during a stated period.
Income Salaries and wages.
Independent variable The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in a second variable.
Index crimes The eight types of crime reported annually by the FBI in the Uniform Crime Reports: murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson.
Industrial city A relatively large city characterized by open competition, an open class system, and elaborate specialization in the manufacturing of goods.
Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services.
Infant mortality rate The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births in a given year.
Influence The exercise of power through a process of persuasion.
Informal economy Transfers of money, goods, or services that are not reported to the government.
Informal norm A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded.
Informal social control Social control carried out casually by ordinary people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule.
In-group Any group or category to which people feel they belong.
Innovation The process of introducing a new idea or object into a culture through discovery or invention.
Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society.
Instrumentality An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one's family and other social institutions.
Intelligent design (ID) The idea that life is so complex, it could only have been created by intelligent design.
Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole.
Intergenerational mobility Changes in the social position of children relative to their parents.
Interview A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information.
Intragenerational mobility Changes in a person's social position within his or her adult life.
Invention The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before.
Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life under which even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals.
Kinship The state of being related to others.
Labeling theory An approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not.
Labor union Organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer.
Laissez-faire A form of capitalism under which people compete freely, with minimal government intervention in the economy.
Language An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication.
Latent function An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidden purposes.
Law Governmental social control.
Liberation theology Use of a church, primarily Roman Catholicism, in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice evident in a secular society.
Life chances The opportunities people have to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences.
Life course approach A research orientation in which sociologists and other social scientists look closely at the social factors that influence people throughout their lives, from birth to death.
Life expectancy The median number of years a person can be expected to live under current mortality conditions.
Looking-glass self A concept that emphasizes the self as the product of our social interactions with others.
Luddites Rebellious craft workers in 19th-century England who destroyed new factory machinery as part of their resistance to the industrial revolution.
Machismo A sense of virility, personal worth, and pride in one's maleness.
Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations.
Manifest function An open, stated, and conscious function.
Mass media Print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences.
Master status A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's general position in society.
Material culture The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives.
Matriarchy A society in which women dominate in family decision making.
Matrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the relatives of the mother are significant.
Matrix of domination The cumulative impact of oppression because of race, gender, and class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, disability, and age.
McDonaldization The process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world.
Mean A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values.
Mechanical solidarity A collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor.
Median The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values.
Megalopolis A densely populated area containing two or more cities and their suburbs.
Mental illness A disorder of the brain that disrupts a person's thinking, feeling, and ability to interact with others.
Microfinancing Lending small sums of money to the poor so that they can work their way out of poverty.
Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means.
Midlife crisis A stressful period of self-evaluation that begins at about age 40.
Migration The relatively permanent movement of people, with the purpose of changing their place of residence.
Minority group A subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs.
Mode The single most common value in a series of scores.
Model or ideal minority A minority group that despite past prejudice and discrimination succeeds economically, socially, and educationally without resorting to confrontations with Whites.
Modernization theory A functionalist approach that proposes that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing nations.
Modernization The far-reaching process by which peripheral nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies.
Monarchy A form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, queen, or some other hereditary ruler.
Monogamy A form of marriage in which one woman and one man are married only to each other.
Monopoly Control of a market by a single business firm.
Morbidity rate The incidence of disease in a given population.
Mores Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society.
Mortality rate The incidence of death in a given population.
Multinational corporation A commercial organization that is headquartered in one country but does business throughout the world.
Multiple-nuclei theory A theory of urban growth developed by Harris and Ullman that views growth as emerging from many centers of development, each of which reflects a particular urban need or activity.
Narcotizing dysfunction The phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue.
Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change.
Neocolonialism Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries.
Net neutrality The principle that the government should remain nonselective or neutral toward online content.
New religious movement (NRM) or cult A small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith.
New social movement An organized collective activity that addresses values and social identities, as well as improvements in the quality of life.
New urban sociology An approach to urbanization that considers the interplay of local, national, and worldwide forces and their effect on local space, with special emphasis on the impact of global economic activity.
Nonmaterial culture Ways of using material objects as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication.
Nonperiodic assembly A nonrecurring gathering of people that often results from word-of-mouth information.
Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures.
Norm An established standard of behavior maintained by a society.
Nuclear family A married couple and their unmarried children living together.
Obedience Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure.
Objective method A technique for measuring social class that assigns individuals to classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education, income, and place of residence.
Observation A research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation and/or closely watching a group or community.
Off-shoring The transfer of work to foreign contractors.
Oligarchy A form of government in which a few individuals rule.
Open system A social system in which the position of each individual is influenced by his or her achieved status.
Operational definition An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept.
Opinion leader Someone who influences the opinions and discussions of others.
Organic solidarity A collective consciousness that rests on mutual interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labor.
Organized crime The work of a group that regulates relations among various criminal enterprises, including prostitution, gambling, and the smuggling and sale of illegal drugs.
Out-group A group or category to which people feel they do not belong.
Panic A fearful arousal or collective flight based on a generalized belief that may or may not be accurate.
Patriarchy A society in which men dominate in family decision making.
Patrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the relatives of the father are significant.
Peace The absence of war, or more broadly, a proactive effort to develop cooperative relations among nations.
Percentage A portion of 100.
Periodic assembly A recurring, relatively routine gathering of people, such as a college class.
Personality A person's typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics, and behavior.
Peter principle A principle of organizational life according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence.
Pluralism Mutual respect for one another's cultures among the various groups in a society, which allows minorities to express their own cultures without experiencing prejudice.
Pluralist model A view of society in which many competing groups within the community have access to government, so that no single group is dominant.
Political system The social institution that is founded on a recognized set of procedures for implementing and achieving society's goals.
Politics In Harold D. Lasswell's words, "who gets what, when, and how."
Polyandry A form of polygamy in which a woman may have more than one husband at the same time.
Polygamy A form of marriage in which an individual can have several husbands or wives simultaneously.
Polygyny A form of polygamy in which a man may have more than one wife at the same time.
Population pyramid A special type of bar chart that shows the distribution of a population by gender and age.
Postindustrial city A city in which global finance and the electronic flow of information dominate the economy.
Postindustrial society A society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information.
Postmodern society A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images.
Power elite A small group of military, industrial, and government leaders who control the fate of the United States.
Power The ability to exercise one's will over others.
Preindustrial city A city of only a few thousand people that is characterized by a relatively closed class system and limited mobility.
Prejudice A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.
Prestige The respect and admiration that an occupation holds in a society.
Prevalence The total number of cases of a specific disorder that exist at a given time.
Primary group A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation.
Profane The ordinary and commonplace elements of life, as distinguished from the sacred.
Professional criminal A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation, developing skilled techniques and enjoying a certain degree of status among other criminals.
Proletariat Karl Marx's term for the working class in a capitalist society.
Protestant ethic Max Weber's term for the disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and rational orientation to life emphasized by John Calvin and his followers.
Public opinion Expressions of attitudes on matters of public policy that are communicated to decision makers.
Public A dispersed group of people, not necessarily in contact with one another, who share an interest in an issue.
Qualitative research Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data.
Quantitative research Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form.
Quasi-religion A scholarly category that includes organizations that may see themselves as religious but are seen by others as "sort of religious."
Questionnaire A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent.
Quiceañera Among Latinos, a celebration of a young woman's fifteenth birthday
Racial group A group that is set apart from others because of obvious physical differences.
Racial profiling Any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person's behavior.
Racism The belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior.
Random sample A sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected.
Rational-legal authority Power made legitimate by law.
Reference group Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior.
Relative deprivation The conscious feeling of a negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present actualities.
Relative poverty A floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole.
Reliability The extent to which a measure produces consistent results.
Religion A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.
Religious belief A statement to which members of a particular religion adhere.
Religious experience The feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion.
Religious ritual A practice required or expected of members of a faith.
Remittances The monies that immigrants return to their families of origin. Also called migradollars.
Representative democracy A form of government in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people.
Research design A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.
Resocialization The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life.
Resource mobilization The ways in which a social movement utilizes such resources as money, political influence, access to the media, and personnel.
Rite of passage Ritual marking the symbolic transition from one social position to another.
Role conflict The situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person.
Role exit The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity.
Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations.
Role taking The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and responding from that imagined viewpoint.
Routine activities theory The notion that criminal victimization increases when motivated offenders and vulnerable targets converge.
Rumor A piece of information gathered informally that is used to interpret an ambiguous situation.
Sacred Elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear.
Sample A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population.
Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm.
Sandwich generation The generation of adults who simultaneously try to meet the competing needs of their parents and their children.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. It holds that language is culturally determined.
Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon systematic observation.
Scientific management approach Another name for the classical theory of formal organizations.
Scientific method A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.
Second shift The double burden—work outside the home followed by child care and housework—that many women face and few men share equitably.
Secondary analysis A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data.
Secondary group A formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding.
Sect A relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the faith.
Secularization The process through which religion's influence on other social institutions diminishes.
Segregation The physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social events; often imposed on a minority group by a dominant group.
Self A distinct identity that sets us apart from others.
Serial monogamy A form of marriage in which a person may have several spouses in his or her lifetime, but only one spouse at a time.
Sexism The ideology that one sex is superior to the other.
Sexual harassment Behavior that occurs when work benefits are made contingent on sexual favors (as a quid pro quo), or when touching, lewd comments, or exhibition of pornographic material creates a "hostile environment" in the workplace.
Sick role Societal expectations about the attitudes and behavior of a person viewed as being ill.
Significant other An individual who is most important in the development of the self, such as a parent, friend, or teacher.
Single-parent family A family in which only one parent is present to care for the children.
Slavery A system of enforced servitude in which some people are owned by other people.
Small group A group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously—that is, to talk with one another or at least be well acquainted.
Social change Significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and culture, including norms and values.
Social constructionist perspective An approach to deviance that emphasizes the role of culture in the creation of the deviant identity.
Social control The techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society.
Social epidemiology The study of the distribution of disease, impairment, and general health status across a population.
Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, and power.
Social institution An organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs.
Social interaction The ways in which people respond to one another.
Social mobility Movement of individuals or groups from one position of a society's stratification system to another.
Social movement An organized collective who undertake activities to bring about or resist fundamental change in an existing group or society.
Social network A series of social relationships that links a person directly to others and through them indirectly to still more people.
Social role A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status.
Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change.
Social structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships.
Socialism An economic system under which the means of production and distribution are collectively owned.
Socialization The lifelong process in which people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture.
Societal-reaction approach Another name for labeling theory.
Society A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside it, and participate in a common culture.
Sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior.
Sociocultural evolution Long-term trends in societies resulting from the interplay of continuity, innovation, and selection.
Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past.
Sociology The scientific study of social behavior and human groups.
Squatter settlement An area occupied by the very poor on the fringe of a city, in which housing is constructed by the settlers themselves from discarded material.
Status group People who have the same prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions.
Status A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society.
Stereotype An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group.
Stigma A label used to devalue members of certain social groups.
Stratification A structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society.
Subculture A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society.
Suburb According to the Census Bureau, any territory within a metropolitan area that is not included in the central city.
Survey A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.
Symbol A gesture, object, or word that forms the basis of human communication.
Symbolic ethnicity An ethnic identity that emphasizes such concerns as ethnic food and political issues rather than deeper ties to one's ethnic heritage.
Teacher-expectancy effect The impact that a teacher's expectations about a student's performance may have on the student's actual achievements.
Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires.
Telecommuter An employee who works full-time or part-time at home rather than in an outside office, and who is linked to supervisor and colleagues through computer terminals, phone lines and fax machines.
Terrorism The use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims.
Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior.
Total fertility rate (TFR) The average number of children born alive to a woman, assuming that she conforms to current fertility rates.
Total institution An institution that regulate all aspects of a person's life under a single authority, such as a prison, the military, a mental hospital, or a convent.
Totalitarianism Virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society's social and political life.
Tracking The practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test scores and other criteria.
Traditional authority Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice.
Trained incapacity The tendency of workers in a bureaucracy to become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems.
Transnational An immigrant who sustains multiple social relationships that link his or her society of origin with the society of settlement.
Transnational crime Crime that occurs across multiple national borders.
Triad A three-member group.
Underclass The long-term poor people who lack training and skills.
Urban ecology An area of study that focuses on the interrelationships between people and their environment in urban areas.
Urbanism A term used by Louis Wirth to describe distinctive patterns of social behavior evident among city residents.
Validity The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.
Value neutrality Max Weber's term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data.
Value A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper—or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture.
Value-added model A theory of collective behavior proposed by Neil Smelser to explain how broad social conditions are transformed in a definite pattern into some form of collective behavior.
Variable A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions.
Verstehen The German word for "understanding" or "insight"; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions.
Vertical mobility The movement of a person from one social position to another of a different rank.
Vested interests Those people or groups who will suffer in the event of social change, and who have a stake in maintaining the status quo.
Victimization survey A questionnaire or interview given to a sample of the population to determine whether people have been victims of crime.
Victimless crime A term used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired, but illegal, goods and services.
Visitablity The accessibility of private homes to visitors with disabilities.
Vital statistics Records of births, deaths, marriages, and divorces gathered through a registration system maintained by governmental units.
Voluntary association An organization established on the basis of common interest, whose members volunteer or even pay to participate.
War Conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces equipped with deadly weapons.
Wealth An inclusive term encompassing all of a person's material assets, including land, stocks, and other types of property.
White-collar crime Illegal acts committed by affluent, "respectable" individuals in the course of business activities.
World systems analysis Immanual Wallerstein's view of the global economic system as one divided between certain industrialized nations that control wealth and developing countries that are controlled and exploited.
Zero population growth (ZPG) The state of a population in which the number of births plus immigrants equals the number of deaths plus emigrants.
- Learning
- a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
- Associative Learning, linking two events that occur close together. cause and effect.
- conditioning is the process of learning associations.
- Observational Learning, learning from others' experiences and examples.
-
- Pavlov and all parts of his theory (including the UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)
- Unconditioned Response (UR), the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
- just happens automatically, no control over it.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US), a stimulus that unconditionally --naturally and automatically-- triggers a response.
- Conditioned Response (CR), the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
- is learned.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS), an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
- Unconditioned Response (UR), the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
- Spontaneous recovery, extinction, generalization, discrimination
- Spontaneous Recovery, the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
- Extinction, The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.
- Generalization, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
- Discrimination, in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
- Biological predispositions (pg 22-10)
- Little Albert
- John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner.
- 11-month old. presented with white rat. reached to touch, BANG hammer against steel bar behind his head. 7 repetitions.
- burst into tears at mere sight of rat.
- 5 days later, showed generalization. fear when presented with rabbit, dog, sealskin coat.
OPERANT CONDITIONING: Modules 22
- Shaping
- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
- Schedule of Reinforcement (must be able to recognize examples of each)
- Fixed-Ratio Schedule, in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
- Variable-Ratio Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
- Fixed-Interval Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.
- Variable-Interval Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
- Cognitive map
- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
- Latent learning
- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
- rats in a maze. wander around developing a cognitive map. do not display this known map until a reward of food is placed in the goal box. then they know exactly where to go.
- Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- doing something just because you like doing it.
- Extrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
- doing something because of the reward you'll get at the end.
- Intrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- Positive & negative reinforcement
- Positive Reinforcement, increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
- Negative Reinforcement, increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
- Punishment
- an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
- Skinner & all parts of his theory
LEARNING BY OBSERVATION: Modules 23
- Observational learning
- learning by observing others.
- Mirror neurons
- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
========================================
========================================
INTRODUCTION TO MEMORY: Modules 24-28
- Memory
- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
- Flashbulb memory
- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
- knowing where you were when hearing about 9/11.
- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
- Encoding, storage, retrieval
- Encoding, the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning.
- Storage, the retention of encoded information over time.
- Retrieval, the process of getting information out of memory storage.
- Sensory, short-term/working, long-term memory
- Sensory Memory, the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
- Short-Term Memory, activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
- Working Memory, a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
- Long-Term Memory, the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge skills and experiences.
- Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory (just know slide)
- on the slide it says:
- Baddeley (2002)- WM includes both auditory and visual-spatial elements, coordinated by the central executive processor.
- on the slide it says:
ENCODING: Modules 25
- Encoding (semantic, visual, organization)
- Chunking, acronyms, mnemonic devices, rehearsal)
- retain info better when rehearsal is distributed over time
- called spacing effect
- retain info better when rehearsal is distributed over time
- Automatic processing & effortful processing
- auto - With little or no effort we absorb an enormous amount of information. Space, time, frequency.
- efortful - We remember with effort and attention. Rehearsal- the more you do, the more you’ll remember.
STORAGE: Modules 26
- Iconic/echoic memory
- iconic - type of memory: Our eyes register an exact representation of a scene that can be recalled in amazing detail. lasts for half second.
- Visual (ICONIC) sensory memory
- echoic - type of memory: Auditory echoes tend to linger
- Auditory (ECHOIC) sensory memory
- iconic - type of memory: Our eyes register an exact representation of a scene that can be recalled in amazing detail. lasts for half second.
- Explicit/implicit memory
- explicit - refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
- implicit - involves learning an action, and the individual does not know or declare what she knows.
RETRIEVAL: Modules 27
- Mood congruent memory
- we recall experiences in a way consistent with our current mood.
- State dependent memory
- learning that occurs in one situation is better recalled when in that same situation
- Recall/recognition
- recall-remembering
- recognition-recognizing
- Retrieval cues
- memories are held in storage by a web of associations called retrieval cues.
- Priming
- the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, and MEMORY IMPROVEMENT: Modules 28
- Encoding & retrieval failure
- we cannot remember what we failed to encode bc it never entered our logterm mem in the first place.
- retrieval failure is usually the problem.
- Proactive/retroactive interference
- proac - something learned earlier disrupts the recall of a later experience
- retroac - new info makes it hard to recall something learned earlier
- Repression
- basic defese mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughs, feeling, and memories. by freud.
- Misinformation effect
- after exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember.
- Source amnesia
- we retain memories of the event, but not in the context of which we aquired it.
- attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
- Memory construction
- we often construct our memories as we encode them, and we may alter our memories as we withdraw them from our memory bank.
- Learning
- a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
- Associative Learning, linking two events that occur close together. cause and effect.
- conditioning is the process of learning associations.
- Observational Learning, learning from others' experiences and examples.
-
- Pavlov and all parts of his theory (including the UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)
- Unconditioned Response (UR), the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
- just happens automatically, no control over it.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US), a stimulus that unconditionally --naturally and automatically-- triggers a response.
- Conditioned Response (CR), the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
- is learned.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS), an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
- Unconditioned Response (UR), the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
- Spontaneous recovery, extinction, generalization, discrimination
- Spontaneous Recovery, the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
- Extinction, The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.
- Generalization, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
- Discrimination, in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
- Biological predispositions (pg 22-10)
- Little Albert
- John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner.
- 11-month old. presented with white rat. reached to touch, BANG hammer against steel bar behind his head. 7 repetitions.
- burst into tears at mere sight of rat.
- 5 days later, showed generalization. fear when presented with rabbit, dog, sealskin coat.
OPERANT CONDITIONING: Modules 22
- Shaping
- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
- Schedule of Reinforcement (must be able to recognize examples of each)
- Fixed-Ratio Schedule, in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
- Variable-Ratio Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
- Fixed-Interval Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.
- Variable-Interval Schedule, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
- Cognitive map
- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
- Latent learning
- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
- rats in a maze. wander around developing a cognitive map. do not display this known map until a reward of food is placed in the goal box. then they know exactly where to go.
- Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- doing something just because you like doing it.
- Extrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
- doing something because of the reward you'll get at the end.
- Intrinsic Motivation, a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- Positive & negative reinforcement
- Positive Reinforcement, increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
- Negative Reinforcement, increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
- Punishment
- an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
- Skinner & all parts of his theory
LEARNING BY OBSERVATION: Modules 23
- Observational learning
- Mirror neurons
========================================
========================================
INTRODUCTION TO MEMORY: Modules 24-28
- Memory
- Flashbulb memory
- Encoding, storage, retrieval
- Sensory, short-term/working, long-term memory
- Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory (just know slide)
ENCODING: Modules 25
- Encoding (semantic, visual, organization)
- Chunking, acronyms, mnemonic devices, rehearsal)
- Automatic processing & effortful processing
STORAGE: Modules 26
- Iconic/echoic memory
- Explicit/implicit memory
RETRIEVAL: Modules 27
- Mood congruent memory
- State dependent memory
- Recall/recognition
- Retrieval cues
- Priming
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, and MEMORY IMPROVEMENT: Modules 28
- Encoding & retrieval failure
- Proactive/retroactive interference
- Repression
- Misinformation effect
- Source amnesia
- Memory construction
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/02/1
http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/c
http://www.globalchange.com/Cloning/
http://www.globalchange.com/clonech.htm
http://socialissues.wiseto.com/Topics/Cl
http://www.policyalmanac.org/health/arch
http://www.sac.edu/students/library/neal
4. List and describe the four basic types of religion.
Basic religions - include early Native American religions, and early African religions. The religions of contemporary people whose religious ideas are not preserved in written form and to the religions of prehistoric peoples, about whom little we know. Probably the most common characteristic of this group is an animistic view of nature.
Religions Originating In India - include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The basic beliefs of these religions are that there are many gods and that one person may lead many lives through a system of reincarnation. The ultimate concern of these religions is release from the cycle of life, death, and rebirth.Sometimes this goal is achieved through the aid of the gods, but often believers are expected by their actions, or lack thereof, to work out their own release.
Religions Originating In China and Japan - include Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto. They have a common belief in many gods and include the worship of nature, the worship or veneration of ancestors, and in the case of Shinto, a reverence for the nation itself.
Religions Originating in the Middle East - include Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Baha'i. All believe in one Supreme Creator God; they believe each person lives one earthly life, they regard the material universe positively, hold a linear view of time, and believe in divine judgment of the world.
CHAPTER 1 QUESTIONS:
1. What are the two primary sources for information about basic religions?
Contemporary Basic Religions - From the study of a contemporary basic culture's religious beliefs and practices, an anthropologist may infer that many or all basic and prehistoric religions have had similar attitudes and religious practices.
Not quite so good though because the people's practices and religious awareness may have changed.
Archaeology -
Not quite reliable because for prehistoric people there was no documentation. Therefore archaeological results depend on the interpretation of the investigator.
2. Give at least three characteristics of the following religions: Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, and the Neolithic Periods.
Neanderthal - (1) They buried their dead, and in this burials are the remains of animal bones and stone tools. This may indicate that the dead were buried with food, tools, and weapons, perhaps as offerings to the gods or as necessary accompaniments into the world of the dead. (2) Archaeologists have found bear skulls, apparently carefully arrange, in Neanderthal burials. Which may suggest a worshipful attitude toward the bear.
Cro-Magnon - (1) Apparently buried tools and weapons with their dead. Graves also have yielded ornaments with which the dead were buried. Some graves contained bones painted red. Archaeologists have interpreted these facts as indicative of concern for life beyond the grave. (3) Sometime the corpse was curled up in a fetal position. To some, this might indicate that the dead were seeking rebirth in the next life. (4) Cave paintings depicting animals being killed in a hunt. The most common understanding of these painting is that they were placed on the cave walls by priests or magicians before the hunt. It is believed that by painting the animals being killed, the priests were hoping to predict the events of a successful hunt. (5) They carved figures from stone, ivory, and bone. One of the best known is the so-called Venus of Willendorf, a figure depicting a human female form. Although the figure has no face, its breasts hips and abdomen are greatly exaggerated. Similar figures from historic cultures indicate worship of a fertility goddess.
Neolithic - (1) The development of agriculture as a way of life influenced the evolution of religion. People no longer had to move around in search of game. They could settle down and this led to the development of cities. It gave people more leisure time to devote to the mysteries of religion. (2) Agriculture led the people to become aware of the season, tides, moon phases, and star movement. This led people to develop religions based on these facts and to personify the sun, moon, stars, and seasons. (3) Archaeologists uncovered large burials containing bones of men, women, animals, along with tools, weapons, and ornaments. This suggests to some that the people may have buried the chieftain with his wives, servants, and favorite animals, so that they might serve him in the next life. (4) Neolithic societies also erected huge stone monument know as megaliths (such as Stonehenge). No written records, so it is unknown why. Generally assumed that they had something to do with religion. One of the most common theories is that they were connected to a cult of the dead and to ancestor veneration.
3. Define the following terms:
Animism - People believe that they are not the only spirit --that animals, trees, stones, rivers, mountains, the heavenly bodies, the seas, and the earth itself have anima (spirit). It is also believed that these spirits communicate, can be flattered or offended, and can either help or hurt humans.
Magic - Used by Shamans. Magicians attempt to control nature for the benefit of their people of the detriment of their enemies. They perceive the world as being controlled by forces that can be manipulated. Most common form in basic societies is sympathetic or imitative magic. One attempts to coerce nature into some act by performing that act oneself, but on a smaller scale. Another aspect is the fetish.
Divination - Used to predict the future. Usually the work of priests or specially prepared people, through various means. Examination of entrails of a sacrificed animal, observing the flights of birds, casting sacred dice, cracks of tortoise shell. Societies sought knowledge of the future from a member of the group believed to have been possessed by the spirits (Shaman/Prophet). Lecture: the act of telling the future.
Taboo - Certain actions that must be avoided lest the spirit world release harmful effects on the person or group. Holy persons, places, or objects (chieftains, priests, sacred places, fetishes, etc).The birth of twins, the dead, menstruating women, certain foods. Lecture: a no-no.
Shaman - Lecture: both men and women, a person believed to have a foot in both worlds, can contact spirits, practices magic.
Myth - Stories that have a religious truth. Usually based on a "true" story. Often used to explain the whys and hows of the world.
Mana - A supernatural power that belonged to the region of the unseen. Experienced emotionally rather than rationally. Power that resides within something. Like in a good luck charm.
Prayer - Speaking to a higher power.
Fetish - Any object used to control nature in a magical fashion (good-luck charms). Used to bring good fortune and ward off evil. Lecture: your attraction toward a thing that has mana.
Totem - Apparently based on the feeling if kinship that humans have for other creatures of objects in nature. Generally, it involves some form of identification between a tribe or clan and an animal. Lecture: like a mascot; typically an animal.
Sacrifice - An offer to a god/ higher power to appease them, thank them, or get on their good side. Usually the best of the herd, or whatever was sacrificed.
Rites of Passage - Certain rituals at key transitional points in life. Happens around birth, puberty, marriage, and death.
Purification Rites - Cleansing ritual. Atonement. Such as for getting rid of the taboo of removing the dead bodies.
Ancestor Veneration - The veneration or worship of deceased members of the family.
Polytheism - Belief in many gods.
Monotheism - Belief in one god.
Pantheism - Belief that everything is a god. The divine is the totality of life. Not god is IN everything, but god IS everything.
Agnosticism - The absence of a belief. No knowledge.
Atheism - Belief that there is no god.
Henotheism - Belief in a High god and a bunch of lesser gods under him. Another version of this is that there are lots of gods, but only one god for you specifically.
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CHAPTER 2 QUESTIONS:
1. List four ways in which Native American Indians contact the spirit world.
Through rituals, through dance, through visions, through the medicine man/woman, and through the use of tobacco and peyote.
Dance is an event in which the entire community participates.
2. Define the following in terms of the Native American Indians:
Sacrifice - Understood to be a gift to the spirits in exchange for assistance to human beings. Great blood sacrifices are generally not part of their worship. Perhaps human or animal blood poured out to the spirits seems wasteful to animistic Native Americans. It might also anger the spirit of the victim.
Rituals - A means of renewing the partnership between humans and the spirit world. Involve dancing, singing, fasting, ordeals, bathing, and the observation of certain taboos. Imitative magic rituals used before a hunt.
Taboos - Used to protect themselves from possible danger from the spirit world. Taboos are all actions, circumstances, persons, objects, etc., which owing to their dangerousness fall outside the normal everyday categories of existence. A kind of religious action that allows people to avoid doing things that would offend the spirits of nature and the ancestors. EX: menstruating women, avoidance of the dead.
Visions to control the spirit world -
3. Describe the medicine, religious leadership, ceremonies, and the rituals of the America Indian religions.
Medicine - Sickness is caused by the invasion of the body by a foreign object and healing comes about when the foreign body is removed. It is the job of the healer to remove such objects. The medicine receives his power through visions. The healing process sometimes consists of a sucking ritual, attempting to suck the offensive object or spirit from the body of the sick person. At other times the patient is given various herbs and teas to alleviate pain and induce healing.
Religious Leadership - The religions are personal to each tribe member so therefore there is little need for religious leaders. Rarely any sacrifices so no need for a trained person there. But there are specialists, most commonly the medicine man/woman.
Ceremonies - Very important to them. A means of renewing the partnership between humans and the spirit world.
Rituals - Used before hunting to ensure success. Apologies to the killed animal.
4. What was the notion of death and afterlife in American Indian religions?
Generalization. Believed in two souls, neither considered immortal. One soul is the life of the body, so when the body dies, this soul also dies. Second soul, free soul. Wanders about during dreams or leaves body during sickness. After death, free soul goes to land of the dead; sometimes considered happy place, sometimes considered sad. Land of the dead is continuation of this life but on a different plane of existence. All go to this land.
Some try to aid the deceased on their journey by burying food and drink with them. Carried further when important person dies. Sometimes animal is killed to act as a guide, sometimes enemy is killed.
Once soul reaches land of dead, doesn't necessarily live forever. Exists there only as long as the person is remembered by the living.
Occasional belief in reincarnation. But not significant.
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CHAPTER 3 QUESTIONS:
1. List three non-native religions in Africa and describe their influence.
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
2. What is the idea of the high god, lesser spirits, and the role of ancestors in African religions?
High god - Created the world and in some sense still governs it. Created then retired to a distant place. HAs little contact with the world and its daily operations. May be appealed to at times of great crisis. Regarded as too distant and too great to pay much attention to the prayers of human beings.
Except for the Nuer of the Sudan who regard the high god in much the same sense as the Christian God.
Lesser Spirits - Found in most of nature. Not always a major element, but recognized and worshiped in most traditional African religions. Attempt to seek their favor. Most common offering of food or drink.
Role of Ancestors - Most commonly recognized spiritual forces. Deceased family members continue to live in the spirit world and they take an active interest in the well-being of those who live in this world. Fear and respect. Can either help or harm. Cause of sickness, death, drought, famines, droughts, other natural disasters. Enforce social and moral codes. Offered sacrifices. Communicate through dreams. Know about and can influence the future.
3. Define the following terms as they relate to African religions:
Sacrifice - seek to appease the gods/godesses/ancestors. provide safe and proper transition through the various stages of life.
perhaps most common, daily offerings to the gods/godesses/ancestors. pour out some of their drink or toss away bits of food. maintains good relations with spirits and ancestors.
animal sacrifice on serious occasions. blood of animal poured on ground to placate angry deities or to ensure their help in some difficult period. often the worshiper shares the meat with the deity.
human sacrifice very rare. most common, when a great king dies people were sacrificed to accompany him as servants.
Rites of Passage - birth, puberty, marriage death.
children not named or loved for first week of life. infant mortality rate. might be a ghost child com to trick them into loving it. naming ceremony, then show child to the moon. some do circumcision at birth.
as child approaches puberty, instructed in the norms of society and how to behave properly. girl secluded in house encouraged to eat and get plump. boy, harsh physical trial, whipping/fasting.
boys, circumcision. test of courage. expected to endure operation without crying out/flinching.
female circumcision practiced by some.
after all these, young people are considered adults and are expected to assume both the privileges and responsibilities.
marriage, little religious about it. virginity prized. polygamy by elites. occasional polyandry.
death, make newly dead as comfortable as possible so that they will not return to haunt living. burial, most common. money trinkets tools weapons are buried.
Religious Leadership - a few temples in west africa that require trained priests/priestesses.
most common, spiritual curer. no "natural" causes for death and disease. generally spiritual cause. spell or curse cast to make ill. or sick person offended spirits. spiritual curers job to find cause and prescribe cure. uses divination.
Theory of Healing -
4. What is the status of African religions today?
Still millions of Africans who practice traditional religions and millions more who combine traditional African beliefs and customs with those of non-native faiths. Christianity and Islam will probably continue to increase. Though in Africa, they both have distinct African qualities.
twins = bad
no concept of judgement after death. dead simply move to the world of the spirits.
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2. Was the behavior increased or decreased?
3. Was the stimulus positive or negative?
4. Added or subtracted?
I will provide the explanations for each below using the 4 step process:
#5 (example about students talking and teacher glaring)
1. being quiet
2. behavior increased
3. stimulus was negative (glare)
4. glare was taken away when students stopped
5. RESPONSE COST
#6 (example about therapy and relaxation tape)
1. going to therapy
2. behavior increased
3. stimulus was positive
4. tape was added
5. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
#7 (example about asking questions & critical teacher)
1. asking questions
2. decreased
3. stimulus was negative (critical)
4. stimulus was added
5. PUNISHMENT
#8 (example about therapy is exactly like # 6 and its POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT)
#9 (example about lottery ticker)
1. buying lottery tickets
2. behavior is decreased (no longer buy)
3. stimulus is negative (losing)
4. added
5. PUNISHMENT
#10 (example about raising hand and being called on)
1. raising hand
2. behavior increased
3. stimulus is positive (being called on)
4. stimulus is added
5. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
#11 (example about Greg/Andrew and the point system
1. following directions
2. behavior is increased
3. stimulus is positive ( points)
4. points added
5. PROSIIVE REINFORCEMENT
1. calling mom names
2. behavior has decreased
3. stimulus is positive (points)
4. points are subtracted
5. RESPONSE COST
#12 (example about dentist)
1. going to the dentist
2. behavior has increased
3. stimulus is negative (emergency visits)
4. visits have been subtracted
5. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
If you have any questions about any of these, please do not hesitate to contact me. I hope this clears up any confusion that may have occurred yesterday!!
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chasethestars
chasethestars